} History
Independent article: History of Bolivia

Pre-colonial period
A Andean region probably has been inhabited for some 20,000 years. Beginning all about a Second century B.C., a Tiwanaku culture developed at the southern prevent of Lake Titicaca. This culture, centered as much as & known as for the awesome city of Tiwanaku, developed advanced architectural and agricultural techniques before it disappeared in the area of 1200 A.D., probably because of extended drought (some legends of a Aymará, world health organization claim descendance from either a dweller of Tiwanaku, show that Flow of any stream Titikaka rose & flooded the city, inducing dissemination of the survivors). About contemporaneous using a Tiwanakan culture, a Moxos in a eastern lowlands and the Mollos north of present-day La Paz also developed advanced agricultural societies that experienced dissipated per 13th century The.D. Around astir 1450, the Quechua-speaking Incas entered the locality of modern upl& Bolivia and added it to their empire. It controlled a metropolitan area until a Spanish conquest in 1525.

Colonial period
When you took virtually all of the Spanish compound cycle, this territory was known as "Upper Peru" or even "Charcas" & was under a authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government come from either a Audiencia diamond state Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata — modern Sucre). Bolivian silver mines produced much of the Spanish empire's wealth, & Potosí, places of the famous Cerro Rico — "Rich Hill" — was, for numerous years, a big city in the American Hemisphere. The steadily stream of in bondage Indians served when labor pool. When Spanish royal authority weakened in a period of the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew.

The Republic and economic instability (1809)
Independence was proclaimed around 1809, but Xvi years of struggle followed prior to a establishment of the republic, known as for Simón Bolívar, on August 6, 1825 (see Bolivian War of Independence).

Independence did non bring stability. For about Lx years, coups and short-transitory constitutions dominated Bolivian politics. Bolivia's weakness was demonstrated in a period of the War of the Pacific (1879–83), when it misused its sea-coast, & a conterminous rich nitrate fields, together with a port of Antofagasta, to Chile. Since independence, Bolivia has misplaced across half of its territory to neighboring countries due to wars or even bad deals. Understand Treaty of Ayacucho in 1867 and Treaty of Petropolis in 1903.

An increase in the globe price of silver brought Bolivia a measure of proportional prosperity & political stability in the late 1800s. In a period of the early section of the 20th century, tin replaced silver as a united states's first source of wealth. The succession of governments restricted per economic & social elite group followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first third of the century.

Residing conditions of the endemic peoples, world health organization constituted virtually all of the people, remained deplorable. Forced to operate under primitive conditions around the mines & in about feudalistic status in big estates, it were denied access to education, economic chance, or even political participation. Bolivia's kill by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932–35) marked a turning point. Smashing loss of life & territory discredited a traditional ruling classes, when service in a army produced stirrings of political awareness among the autochthonal humans. From either a prevent of a Chaco War until the 1952 revolution, a emergence of contending ideologies & the demands of recently groups convulsed Bolivian politics.

Rise of the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (1951)
A Nationalist Todays Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly depending person. Denied its triumph in the 1951 presidential elections, a MNR led the successful 1952 revolution. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, a MNR introduced universal full-grown right to vote, carried out the sweeping l& reform, promoted rural education, and nationalized the united states's big tin mines.

Twelve years of turbulent rule left a MNR divided. Inside 1964, a military junta overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the start of his third term. A 1969 death of President René Barrientos Ortuño, a previous member of the military junta elective President around 1966, led to a succession of decrepit governments. Alarmed by public disorder, a armed services, a MNR, & others installed Gap. (late General) Hugo Banzer Suárez as President in 1971. Banzer ruled by having MNR trend lines from either 1971 to 1974. So, raring by having schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians by having members of the armed forces & suspended political activities. A economy grew imposingly in the period of virtually all of Banzer's presidency, however human rights violations and eventual financial crises undercut his trend lines. He was forced to call for elections inside 1978, and Bolivithe over again entered a period of political turmoil.

Military governments: García Meza and Siles Zuazo (1978)
Elections within 1978, 1979, and 1980 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups, counter-coups, & caretaker governments. Inside 1980, Gen. Luis García Meza Tejada carried out a remorseless & violent coup that did non keep close at hand popular trend lines. He pacified a humans by promising to remaaround in power just for of these month. (At the prevent of the season, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo," or even, "All right; I'll stay [in office]." He was deposed shortly thenceforth.) His government was ill-famed for man rights abuses, narcotics trafficking, and economic misdirection; when you took his presidency a inflation that would late cripple a Bolivian economy can already become felt. Late condemned inside absentithe for crimes including execution, García Meza was extradited from either Brazil & began serving a Thirty-season sentence in 1995.

When the military rebellion forced out García Meza within 1981, three more stratocracy within Xiv months struggled by having Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced a armed services to convoke a Congress elected in 1980 & allow it to explore the recently chief executive. Inside October 1982, twenty-two years when a prevent of his 1st term of professional (1956-60), Hernán Siles Zuazo again became President. Severe social tension, exacerbated by economic misdirection & feeble leadership, forced him to call for early elections & relinquish power a year prior to a prevent of his constitutional term.

Sánchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy (1993)

Sánchez first state Lozada pursued an aggressive economic & social reform agenda. He relied heavy in successful entrepreneurs-turned-politicians such as himself & in fellow veterans of the Paz Estenssoro administration (in the period of which Sánchez first state Lozada was Minister for Planning). A virtually all spectacular vary undertaken per Sánchez delaware Lozada government was a "capitalization" program, under which investors, usually foreign, acquired 50% ownership & management control of public enterprises, like a state oil corporation, telecommunications system, airlines, railroads, and electrical utilities reciprocally for agreed upon capital investments. A reforms & economic restructuring were strongly opposing by certainside segments of society, which instigated frequent & another time violent protests, particularly in La Paz & a Chapare coca-growing region, from either 1994 through 1996. the Sánchez first state Lozada government pursued a policy of offering pecuniary compensation for voluntary obliteration of illegal coca by its cultivator in the Chapare vicinity. A policy produced little nett reduction inside coca, & in the mid-1990s Bolivia accounted for astir a single-tierce of the globe's coca running into cocaine.

In the 1997 elections, Gen. Hugo Banzer, leader of the ADN, won 22% of a vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. Gen. Banzer formed the coalition of the ADN, MIR, UCS, & CONDEPthe parties which held a majority of seats in the Bolivian Congress. A Congress elected him when president & he was inaugurated in August 6, 1997.

A Banzer government fundamentally continued a loose market & denationalisation policies of its predecessor, & a comparatively robust economic incubation of a mid-1990s continued until just about the third season of its term inside professional. Fallowing that, regional, spherical & farm factors contributed to the decline within economic incubation. Job creation remained limited throughout this cycle & the public perceived a important total of public-sector corruption. Two factors contributed to increasing social protests in a period of the 2nd half of Banzer's term.

At a kickoff of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of utilizing favorite constabulary units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare area. the policy produced a sudden & spectacular Quadruplet-season decline around Bolivia's illegal cocthe crop, pertinent that Bolivia became a comparatively little provider of coca for cocain. a MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition partner throughout a Banzer government, supporting this policy (known as the Dignity Project).

In August 6, 2001, Banzer resigned from professional fallowing existence diagnosed using cancer. He died to a lesser degree a year late. Banzer's U.S.-enlightened Vice President, Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez, completed the final month of the term. Quiroga was constitutionally prohibited from either run national professional inside 2002 but could launder sol within 2007.

In the June 2002 national elections, previous President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MNR) placed 1st by using Xxii.5% of the vote, followed by illegal-coca advocate & endemic campesino leader Evo Morales (Movement Toward Socialism, MAS) with Twenty.9%. Morales edged out democrat candidate Manfred Reyes Villa of the New Republican Force (NFR) by just 700 votes countrywidelaware, earning the spot in the congressional process-off against Sánchez de Lozada in August 4, 2002.

a July agreement between a MNR & the for-place MIR, which experienced over again been led in the election by previous president Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the electiin of Sánchez first state Lozada in the congressional process-off, & on August 6 he was sworn in for the 2nd period. A MNR platform featured terzetto overarching objectives: economic reactivation (& job creation), anti-corruption, and social inclusion.

Social Crisis and the nationalization of hydrocarbon resources (2001-2005)

Inside September 2001, following a advice of the World Bank, the Bolivian government declared that everthing water was to become corporate property, & so that potentially drawing the stream from either either community wells or even gathering rain in their have properties, peasants & urban denizen got to number one choose and obtain permits from International Water system Limited (a multinational largely owned per Bechtel Corporation). a food & drug administration, even so, retracted and abolished the newly a stream privatization rules following wide-scales revolt & riots within protest of the legislation. ^1-2

In the period of, February 2003, four-month economic recession, pinching financial situation, & longstanding ethnic tensions mounted againside in the constabulary insurrection that about toppled the food and drug administration of President Sánchez de Lozada; many times of unrest left additional than Thirty souls dead. The food and drug administration stayed within power however remained unpopular. Far flung protests broke call at October & revealed deep dissatisfaction by owning the food and drug administration. Just about Eighty souls died in a period of the demonstrations which led President Sánchez de Lozada to resign from either professional in October 17. Around the constitutional transport of power, Vice President Carlos Mesa assumed the Presidency & promised to hang on to the binding referendum on the exportation of Bolivian gas. A referendum took place in July 18, and Bolivians voted overpoweringly pro development of the united states's hydrocarbon resources. Mesa planned to detail the food and drug administration's development plans inside legislation to become introduced to Congress. Mesa enjoyed popularity sustaining a Bolivian public, however he faced a equivalent difficulties — social divisions, the radical opposition committed to additional-parliamentary action, & an on-going financial deficit — when a last administration.

In June 6, 2005, President Carlos Mesa was forced to enter his resignation as on top 80,000 protestors surrounded a presidential palace & congress demanding nationalization of the flatulence industry. A autochthonal protestors argued that forearm communities, deuce thirds of Bolivia's people, were non adequately represented inside government. Consequently, a campesinos & endemic people, furious per unjust dividends paid per transnational rock oil corporations, install roadblocks throughout a united states & set all the major cities under besieging. By using Carlos Mesa stranded in a Palace of Plaza Murillo, a congress & senate closed, protestors roamed through wall street of La Paz threatening to cause the "corbateros" (people clothed around lawsuits & ties) from either a united states.

a civil war was averted once, within June 9th, 157 members of a congress & senate converged on the Casa diamond state La Libertad in Sucre, Bolivia & nominated Eduardo Rodriguez, the todays President of the Supreme Court, to the Presidency at the last minute. President Rodriguez, to avert the civil war, has promised to hang on to fresh national elections inside December of 2005.

View likewise: Bolivian Gas War

Politics
Independent article: Politics of Bolivia A 1967 constitution, revised in 1994, provides for balanced executive, legislative, & judicial powers. A traditionally hard executive, all a same, tends to overshadow the Congress, whose role is generally limited to debating & approving legislation initiated per executive. A judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court & departmental & inferior court, has yearn been riddled by using corruption & inefficiency. Across revisions to the constitution around 1994, & subsequent laws, the food & drug administration has initiated possibly far-reaching reforms in the judicatory and processes.

Bolivia's nine departments received greater autonomy under a Administrative Decentralization law of 1995, although main departmental officials come however appointed per central government. Bolivian cities and towns are governed by directly elected mayors and councils. Municipal elections were held in 5 December 2004, with councils elected to 5-season terms. the Popular Participation Law of April 1994, which distributes a important part of national revenues to municipalities for discretionary apply, has enabled antecedently neglected communities to produce striking improvements in their facilities & services.

Departments
Independent article: Departments of Bolivia

Bolivia is divided into nine departments, or departamentos:

Chuquisaca (Sucre) Cochabamba (Cochabamba) El Beni (Trinidad) La Paz (La Paz) Oruro (Oruro) Pando (Cobija) Potosí (Potosí) Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz de la Sierra) Tarija (Tarija)

In addition, to each one department is farther divided into provinces, or even provincias, which address a select few local affairs.

Geography
Independent article: Geography of Bolivia

Bolivia occurs as landlocked united states. Nonetheless, it does keep around access to a Atlantic via the Paraguay flow of any stream. A west of Bolivia is placed in the Andes mountain range, with a greatest peak, Nevado del Sajama at 6,542 m. a west of the united states is formed by a upland tableland, the Altiplano. A east of the united states is lowl&, and covered per Amazonian rainforests. Lake Titicaca is located on the border between Bolivia & Peru. In a west, in the department of Potosí, lies the Salar de Uyuni, the world's largest salt plain.

Major cities come La Paz, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba.

Economy
Independent article: Economy of Bolivia

Bolivia's 2002 gross farm product (GDP) totaled USD $7.9 billion. Economic incubation is astir Ii.5% a year & inflation is potential to exist as between 3% and 4% around 2002 (it was under 1% in 2001).

Bolivia’s todays lackluster economic situation may be linked to many factors from either a retiring ii decades. a number 1 major blow to the Bolivian economy come by using a striking fall around silver cost when you took the early 1980’s which impacted one of Bolivia’s independent sources of income & one of its major mining industries. the 2nd major economic blow come from either a prevent of the Cold War around the late 1980’s & early 1990’s when aid was withdrawn by american countries world health organization got antecedently tried to keep a “democratic� regime in power across financial backing. A third economic blow come from either a U.S. sponsored obliteration of the Bolivian coca crop which was utilized inside 80% of the worlds’ cocain production at its peak. Along by using a reduction in the coca crop come a immense loss of income to the Bolivian economy, particularly the peasant classes.

Since 1985, the Government of Bolivithe has implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization & structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained incubation, & alleviating impoverishment. The major reform of the customs service around recent years has significantly improved transparency therein vicinity. A first structural changes in a Bolivian economy use at times required the capitalization of many public-sector enterprises. (Capitalization in a Bolivian context occurs as form of denationalisation in which investors get the 50% part & management control of public enterprises by agreeing to invest directly into the enterprise on top many years like than paying cash to the government).

Parallel legislative reforms use at times locked into place market-oriented policies, especially in the hydrocarbon & telecommunication sectors, that use encouraged personal investment. Foreign investors come accorded national professional assistance, & foreign ownership of corporations enjoys virtually there is no restrictions around Bolivia. When a capitalization program was successful inside immensely boosting foreign direct investment (FDI) around Bolivia ($1.7 billion around commodity when you took 1996-2002), FDI flows use subsided within recent years when investors complete their capitalization contract obligations.

Witharound 1996, trio units of the Bolivian state oil corporation (YPFB) required in hydrocarbon exploration, production, & transport were capitalized, facilitating the construction of a flatulency pipeline to Brazil. The food and drug administration has an extended-semipermanent sales agreement to sell gas to Brazil across 2019. A Brazil pipeline carried astir 12 million m³ by the day within 2002. Bolivia has a 2nd-largest natural barking spiders reserves within South America, & its todays household have and exportation to Brazil account for simply the little part of its expected production. The food and drug administratiin expects to hang on to the binding referendum within 2004 on plans to export gas. Far flung opposition to exporting barking spiders across Chile trigger off protests that led to the resignation of President Sánchez de Lozada around October 2003.

Around April 2000, Bechtel signed a locate Hugo Banzer, a previous president of Bolivia, to privatize the water system inside Bolivia's 3rd-largest city, Cochabamba. the contract was officially awarded to a Bechtel subsidiary known as Bufo marinus del Tunari, which experienced been formed specifically for that purpose. Shortly thenceforth, a company tripled a h2o rates therewithin city, an action which resulted in protests and rioting among those world health organization may there is no protracted afford do a lake. Martial law was declared, & Bolivian constabulary flushed at least Half a dozen humans and hurt terminated 170 protesters. Amidst Bolivia's countrywide economic collapse & growing national unrest on top a state of a economy, a Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the h2o contract. Inside 2001, Bechtel filed suit a Bolivian government for $25 million within misplaced success. A continuing legal battle has attracted attention from either anti-globalization & anti-capitalist groups.

Bolivian exportation were $1.Three billion witharound 2002, from either the online of $652 million in 1991. Imports were $1.7 billion in 2002. Bolivian tariffs are the uniformly moo 10%, sustaining capital devices charged lone 5%. Bolivia's trade deficit was $460 million around 2002.

Bolivia's trade by owning neighboring countries is growing, within a portion because of many regional discriminatory trade agreements it has negotiated. Bolivia occurs as member of the Andean Community and enjoys nominally free trade sustaining more member countries (Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.) Bolivia began to implement an association agreement with Mercosur (Southern Cone Common Market) within March 1997. the agreement will bring for the gradual creation of a free trade front yard covering at least 80% of the trade between the parties above a Ten-month time period, though economic crises in the area use at times derailed progress at integration. A U.S. Andean Trade Preference & Drug Enforcement Work (ATPDEA) allows many Bolivian products to enter a United States free of duty on the unilateralist basis, including alpaca and llama products and, subject to the quota, cotton textiles.

A United States remains Bolivia's big options trading partner. Inside 2002, a United States exported $283 million of ware to Bolivia & imported $162 million. Bolivia's major exportation to the United States come tin, gold, jewellery, and wood products. Its major imports from either a United States come computers, vehicles, wheat, and machinery. a Bilateral Investment Treaty between the United States & Bolivia inherit consequence inside 2001. Agriculture accounts for roughly 15% of Bolivia's GDP. A total of land cultivated by modern farming techniques is increasing quickly in the Santa Cruz region, in which atmospheric condition provide deuce crops a year. Soybeans are a major cash crop, sold into the Andean Community market. A extraction of minerals & hydrocarbons accounts for a second 10% of GDP and manufacturing less than 17%.

The food and drug administration of Bolivia remains heavy contingent on foreign assistance to finance development projects. At a prevent of 2002, the food and drug administration owed $4.Five billion to its foreign creditors, with $1.6 billion of this total owed to more governments & virtually all of the balance owed to many-sided development banks. Virtually all payments to more governments stand been rescheduled in many occasions since 1987 through the Paris Club mechanism. External creditors keep around been unforced to run this because a Bolivian Government has typically achieved a pecuniary & financial targets placed by IMF computer program since 1987, though economic crises inside recent years use undercut Bolivia's unremarkably full record. Rescheduling agreements granted per Paris Club has allowed a person creditor countries to use super easy terms to the rescheduled debt. Following, a few countries stand forgiven material numbers of Bolivia's bilateral debt. A U.S. Government reached an agreement at a Paris Club meeting within December 1995 that reduced by 67% Bolivia's existent debt option. A Bolivian Government continues to pay its debts to the many-sided development banks prompt. Bolivia occurs as beneficiary of the Heavy Indebted Unfortunate Countries (HIPC) & Enhanced HIPC debt relief software, which by agreement restricts Bolivia's access to recently easy loans. Bolivia was one of troika countries in the Western Hemisphere selected for eligibility for the Millennium Challenge Account and is participating as an observer around FTA negotiations.

Inside 2004 the food and drug administration has given low importance in the development of larboard facilities at Puerto Busch on the Paraguay flow of any stream. Already farther N inside Puerto Suarez & Puerto Aguirre, which are then attached to the Paraguay flow of any stream via canal tamengo going through Brazil, mid-size container ships traverse. When of 2004 astir half of Bolivias exportation is running out via a Paraguay flow of any stream. After Puerto Busch is finished large ocean running ships should exist as respire to dock inside Bolivia. This may greatly assist Bolivia get other competitory inside this it may non develop to have foreign ports as much, mostly in Peru & Chile, which builds on a price of exportation & imports.

Demographics
Independent article: Demographics of Bolivia

Bolivia is one of sole trine countries around Latin Us whose big people section is comprised of unmixed Amerindians - the more deuce existence Guatemala and Peru. Bolivia's ethnic distribution is forecasted to exist as 33% Quechua and 30% Aymara Amerindians, 25% Mestizo (mixed Amerindian & European) and 12% European. A largest of a or so 3-pack autochthonous groups come the Quechua-speaking groups (Deuce.Five million), a Aymara (Two million), Chiquitano (180,000), and Guarani (125,000). There are little German, Italian, Western, Basque, previous Yugoslav, Asian (particularly Japanese), Middle Eastern, & more minorities, numbers of of whose members descend from either families that own sleep in Bolivia for many generations. Likewise noteworthy is a Afro-Bolivian community that statistics about 1% of the people, descended from either African slaves that were transported to operate in the altiplano & the mines of Potosi. It is mostly concentrated in the Yungas region (Nor Yungas and Sud Yungas provinces) in the department of La Paz, some three hours from either La Paz city.

Bolivia is one of a least developed countries within South United states. Almost two-thirds of its population, several of whom come subsistence farmers, sleep in impoverishment. People density ranges from either less than 1 individual by the square klick in the southeastern plains to astir X by the square kilometre. (Twenty-five by the sq. mi.) in the central upland. A annual people rate of growth is astir Ii.74% (2002).

La Paz is the globe's greatest capital city at 3,600 meters (11,800 foot.) above sea level. A adjacent city of El Alto, at 4,200 meters above sea level, is one of a fastest growing in the hemisphere. Santa Cruz, a commercial message & industrial hub of the eastern lowlands, too is getting rapid people & economic incubation.

A outstanding majority of Bolivians come Roman Catholic (the official religion), although Protestant denominations are expanding strongly. Islam is practiced per descendent of Middle Easterners. There exists besides the little however influential Jewish community that is almost tons Ashkenazi in origin. These are too notable that Bolivia is a united states by owning a big percentage of humans that practice the Bahá'í Faith. Due to extensive Mormon missionary efforts there exists real Mormon demographic; there is potentially the temple [http://www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,1297-1,00.html] in Cochabamba. There is a colony of Mennonites near Santa Cruz. Numerous autochthonal communities interweave pre-Columbian and Christian symbols in their worship. Astir half of the humans speak Spanish as their first language, although the Aymara & Quechua languages come as well most common. Around 90% of the toddlers attend grade school however typically for even a year or less. A literacy rate is moo inside numerous rural areas. A ethnic development of what is present-contemporary Bolivia is divided into trinity distinct periods: pre-Columbian, compound, & republican. Crucial archaeological ruins, gold and silver ornamentation, stone monuments, ceramics, and weavings remain from many crucial pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include Tiwanaku, Samaipata, Incallajta, and Iskanwaya. A united states pullulate with more web sites that come hard to email & use seen little archaeologic exploration.

A Spanish brought their have tradition of religious art which, in the paws of local autochthonous & mestizo builders and artisans, developed into a rich & distinctive style of architecture, painting, and sculpture known as "Mestizo Baroque". A compound time period produced non just a paintings of Pérez first state Holguín, Flores, Bitti, & others however as well a works of skilled however unknown stonecutters, woodcarvers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths. An significant body of native churrigueresco religious music of the compound period of time was recovered around recent years & has been performed internationally to wide acclamation since 1993.

Bolivian creative person of stature in the 20th century include, among others, Guzmán de Rojas, Arturo Borda, María Luisa Pacheco, & Marina Núñez del Prado. Bolivia has rich folklore. Its regional folk music is distinctive and varied. A "devil dances" at a annual carnival of Oruro are one of a peachy folkloric cases of South United states of america, when is the lesser known carnival at Tarabuco.

Culture
Independent article: Culture of Bolivia

Bolivian culture has numbers of Inca & other Indian influences around religion, music and habiliment, like a swell known bowler hats. A better known feast is the UNESCO heritage "El carnaval de Oruro". Amusement includes football, which is the national sport, played in numbers of corner. Too, menagerie come the popular attraction by using the diverse people of interesting animals. Besides, Bolivia is good of a kind of festivals, including favorite dance celebrations, like the Carnaval delaware Oruro.

Watch Music of Bolivia

Literature
Herbert S. Klein, "A Concise History of Bolivia", Cambridge 2003

Footnotes